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- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
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The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) serves as the national focus for developing and applying disease prevention and control, environmental health, and health promotion and education activities designed to improve the health of the people of the United States. CDC is recognized as the lead federal agency for protecting the health and safety of people - at home and abroad, providing credible information to enhance health decisions, and promoting health through strong partnerships.
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CDC
Safe Water System
The Safe Water System is a water quality intervention that employs simple, inexpensive and robust technologies appropriate for the developing world. The objective is to make water safe through disinfection and safe storage at the point of use.
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What
is the Safe Water System (SWS)?
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Why
was the SWS developed?
- Who
is the SWS for?
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Where
has the Safe Water System (SWS) been used?
- How is
a SWS started?
url: http://www.cdc.gov/safewater/
Safe Water System Manual
Safe Water Systems for the Developing World:
A Handbook for Implementing Household-Based Water Treatment and Safe Storage Projects
url: http://www.cdc.gov/safewater/
First do no harm: making oral rehydration
solution (ORS) safer in a cholera epidemic
Oral rehydration solution (ORS) is lifesaving therapy for
cholera and pediatric diarrhea. During a cholera epidemic in
Guinea-Bissau, we evaluated the microbiologic quality of ORS
prepared at a hospital and tested a simple intervention using
special vessels for disinfecting tap water with bleach and for
preparing, storing, and dispensing ORS. Few coliform bacteria
and Escherichia coli were recovered from tap water;
however, pre-intervention ORS contained numerous bacteria
including E. coli and toxigenic Vibrio cholerae O1.
In contrast, ORS samples from intervention vessels had few or no
coliform bacteria, no E. coli, and no V. cholerae.
Mean pre-intervention counts of coliform bacteria (3.4 X 107
colony-forming units [cfu]/100 ml) and E. coli (6.2 X
103 cfu) decreased significantly during the
intervention period to 3.6 X 102 cfu and 0 cfu,
respectively (P < 0.001). This simple system using bleach
disinfectant and special storage vessels prevents bacterial
contamination of ORS and reduces the risk of nosocomial
transmission of cholera and other enteric pathogens.
American Journal of Tropical Medicine
and Hygiene 1999; 60: 1051-5.
Daniels
N, Simons L, Rodrigues A, Gunnlaugsson G, Forester T, Wells J, Hutwagner L, Tauxe
R, Mintz E.
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version
Evaluation of a novel water treatment
and storage intenvention in Nicaragua
The cholera epidemic in Latin America has spotlighted inadequate water quality and sanitation in the Region. The long-term solution to this problem would be for every community to have piped, disinfected water as well as sewage treatment facilities, but sufficient resources to provide such services do not exist. An alternative strategy for improving water quality shows promise.
Pan American Journal of Public Health
1998; 3:135-6.
Macy
J, Quick R.
Safe water treatment and storage
in the home: A practical new strategy to prevent waterborne disease
In many parts of the developing world, drinking water is collected from unsafe surface sources outside the home and is then held in household storage vessels. Drinking water may be contaminated at the source or during storage; strategies to reduce waterborne disease transmission must safeguard against both events. We describe a two-component prevention strategy, which allows an individual to disinfect drinking water immediately after collection (point-of-use disinfection) and then to store the water in narrow-mouthed, closed vessels designed to prevent
recontamination (safe storage).
Journal
of the American Medical Association 1995; 273: 948-953.
Mintz
E, Reiff F, Tauxe R.
Narrow-mouthed water storage
vessels and in situ chlorination in a Bolivian community: a simple method to improve
drinking water quality
Epidemiologic investigations of the Latin America cholera epidemic have repeatedly implicated untreated drinking water and water touched by hands during storage as important vehicles for disease transmission. To prevent such transmission, we provided a new narrow-mouthed, plastic, water storage vessel and 5% calcium hypochlorite solution for home disinfection of stored water to a Bolivian Aymara Indian community at risk for cholera. We evaluated acceptance of this intervention and its effect on water quality. Each of 42 families in the study obtained water from a household well; fecal coliform bacteria were found in water from 39 (93%) of 42 wells and 33 (79%) of 42 usual water storage vessels.
American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
1996; 54: 511-516.
Quick
R, Venczel L, Gonzalez O, Mintz E, Highsmith A, Espada A, Damiani E, Bean N, De
Hannover R, Tauxe R. |
Diarrhea
prevention in Bolivia through point-of-use disinfection and safe storage: a promising
new strategy
A novel water quality intervention that consists of point-of-use water disinfection, safe storage and community education was field tested in Bolivia. A total of 127 households in two periurban communities were randomized into intervention and control groups, surveyed and the intervention was distributed.
Epi Infect 1999; 122: 83-90.
Quick R, Venczel L, Mintz E, Soleto L, Aparicio J, Gironaz M, Hutwagner L, Greene
K, Bopp C, Maloney K, Chavez D, Sobsey M, Tauxe R.
Low cost
safe water for the world: a practical interim solution
A very large segment of the world's population is without a microbiologically safe water supply. It is estimated that in Latin America more than 40% of the population is utilizing water of dubious quality for human consumption. This figure is probably even higher in Africa and areas of southeast Asia. Water used for drinking and food preparation can be an important route of transmission for many of the most widespread and debilitating of the diseases that afflict humans.
Health Policy 1996;
17: 389-408.
Reiff
F, Roses M, Venczel L, Quick R, Will V.
Chlorinating
well water with liquid bleach was not an effective water disinfection strategy
in Guinea-Bissau
In late 1994. a cholera epidemic due to toxigenic Vibrio cholerae serogroup O1. serotype Ogawa, biotype E1 Tor caused 15,296 cases and 285 deaths in Guinea-Bissau. West Africa; three-quarters of the cases occurred in the city of Bissau (WHO 1995. Rodrigues et al. 1997).
International Journal of Envirnomental Health Research 1998;
8: 339-40.
Rowe A, Angulo F, Roberts L, Tauxe R.
Water
distribution system and diarrheal disease transmission: a case study in Uzbekistan
Deteriorating water treatment facilities and distribution systems pose a significant public health threat. particularly in republics of the former Soviet Union. Interventions to decrease the disease burden associated with these water systems range from upgrading distribution networks to installing reverse osmosis technology. To provide insight into this decision process, we conducted a randomized intervention study to provide epidemiologic data for water policy decisions in
Nukus, Uzbekistan, where drinking water quality is
suboptimal. We interviewed residents of 240 households, 120 with and 120 without access to municipal piped water.
American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 1998; 59: 941-6.
Semenza
J, Roberts L, Henderson A, Bogan J, Rubin C.
Reduction of fecal contamination of
street-vended beverages in Guatemala by a simple system for water purification
and storage, handwashing, and beverage storage
Street-vended foods and beverages, an integral part of urban economics in the developing world, have been implicated in cholera transmission in Latin America. To improve the microbiologic quality of market-vended beverages in Guatemala, we tested a simple system consisting of dilute bleach (4.95% free available chlorine) for water purification, narrow-mouth plastic vessels with spigots for disinfecting and storing water and for preparing and storing beverages, handwashing soap, and education in using the system. We conducted a randomized controlled intervention trial among 41 vendors who received the intervention and 42 control vendors, comparing total and fecal coliform bacteria and Escherichia coli contamination of market-vended beverages, stored water, and vendors' hands. Samples were obtained at baseline and at each of six weekly follow-up visits.
American Journal of Tropical
Medicine and Hygiene 1998; 59: 380-387.
Sobel J, Mahon B, Mendoza C, Passaro D, Cano F, Baier K, Racioppi F, Hutwagner
L, Mintz E.
Epidemic Cholera in the
New World: Translating Field Epidemiology into New Prevention Strategies
Cholera, a devastating diarrheal disease, has swept through the world in recurrent pandemics since 1817. The seventh and ongoing pandemic began in 1961 when the El Tor biotype of Vibrio cholerae O1 emerged in Indonesia. This pandemic spread through Asia and Africa and finally reached Latin America early in 1991
Emerging Infectious Diseases; 1:141-146.
Tauxe
R, Mintz E and Quick R.
Motivational interviewing
enhances the adoption of water disinfection practices in Zambia
These studies represent the first adaptation of the Motivational Interviewing (MI) behavior change approach in the developing world, using health workers directly from the community. The objective was to compare the effectiveness of the standard practice of health education (comparison group) to MI (experimental group) in initiating and sustaining safe water treatment and storage behavior.
Health Promotion
International 2000: 15:207-214.
Thevos
A, Quick R and Yanduli V.
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